Rna editing biology discussion. RNA Splicing and Mechanisms of Splicing and 3.

Rna editing biology discussion. These modifications are strongly linked to the development of many cancers. Among the various RNA-based technologies developed, RNA base editing has recently emerged as a groundbreaking advancement. Exploring its evolutionary and adaptive roles requires multi-dimensional analysis, from sequence conservation to functional impact. Polyadenylation 4. Apr 11, 2025 · Utilizing machine learning and computational biology to predict the functional effect of editing to assist preclinical development and safeguard patient safety • Designing high-quality, durable… Abstract RNA carries and transports information within cells to significantly influence their function and behavior. Gene and RNA editing techniques Sep 29, 2021 · RNA editing, a vital supplement to the central dogma, yields genetic information on RNA products that are different from their DNA templates. Dec 23, 2022 · RNA editing is a post-transcriptional process that introduces changes in RNA sequences encoded by nuclear, mitochondrial, or plastid genomes. Aug 14, 2025 · RNA editing articles from across Nature Portfolio RNA editing is the process by which ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules are enzymatically modified post synthesis on specific nucleosides. com/ Download the study materials here-more Jan 14, 2019 · Such widespread editing variations necessitate an improved understanding of the regulatory mechanisms of RNA editing. First, our data suggest that the limited RNA-editing system of seed plants and the much more extensive systems found in hornworts and ferns are of monophyletic origin. com/ Download the study materials here-more Apr 6, 2017 · A new study suggests their evolutionary path to neural sophistication includes a novel mechanism: Prolific RNA editing at the expense of evolution in their genomic DNA. Biological systems use a variety of feedback and feedforward mechanisms to establish and maintain specific cellular programs. Accelerate RNA modifying therapies at the 6th RNA Editing Summit in Boston, MA, July 29-31, 2025. ADAR-based RNA editing has emerged as a powerful tool to engineer RNAs, enable correction of disease-causing mutations, and modulate protein functions. Indeed, thousands of articles focused on these topics, with a significant Feb 28, 2024 · This Review provides an overview of different RNA base editing technologies, including the RNA-targeting platforms and modification effectors, with a focus on the emerging programmable RNA base Sep 18, 2025 · Smargon et al. Jun 26, 2024 · Adenosine-to-inosine editing is a form of RNA modification observed in the human brain transcriptome. Using RNA-sequencing and global protein-RNA binding data, we identify a number of RBPs as key regulators of A-to-I editing. , co-first author of the study and a postdoctoral Sep 18, 2025 · Genetic editing holds promise to treat incurable diseases, but the most popular method—CRISPR—sometimes does more harm than good. These practice questions will help you master the material Let us make an in-depth study of the RNA processing. The processes are: 1. Changes in gene expression attributed to editing have been described in organisms from unicellular protozoa to man, and can affect the mRNAs, tRNAs, and rRNAs present in all Nov 4, 2021 · RNA editing regulates the splicing, coding, and metabolic features of RNAs. Here, we review the full spectrum of physiological processes Jan 14, 2019 · Here, we study the roles of >200 RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) in mediating RNA editing in two human cell lines. The role of RNA modification in modulating gene expression in both physiological and diseased states is discussed. Here the authors question the accuracy of utilizing postmortem samples to reflect the RNA Abstract RNA editing can be broadly defined as any site-specific alteration in an RNA sequence that could have been copied from the template, excluding changes due to processes such as RNA splicing and polyadenylation. After transfer learning RNA editing (also RNA modification) is a molecular process through which some cells can make discrete changes to specific nucleotide sequences within an RNA molecule after it has been generated by Mar 31, 2023 · RNA Editing is more prevalent in the nervous system than in other tissues, and it plays a crucial role in neuronal function. Oct 3, 2024 · This issue of Molecular Cell explores the many faces of RNA, diving into the fundamental processes mediating the life cycle of RNA, the regulatory roles of RNA in cellular processes, the importance of RNA in disease, and the technologies used to study RNA. AI generated definition based on: Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science, 2019 Sep 18, 2025 · Download Citation | Fascination with RNA Editing: In the Lights of Evolution and Biology | Adenosine-to-inosine RNA editing is a widespread RNA modification that recodes genetic information and Here, we study the roles of >200 RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) in mediating RNA editing in two human cell lines. D. One of the most prevalent forms of RNA modifications in humans is adenosine-to-inosine (A-to-I) editing, catalyzed by the enzyme adenosine deaminase acting on RNA (ADAR) in double Nov 30, 2013 · For more information, log on to- http://shomusbiology. While some of these methods have demonstrated efficiency in Jun 12, 2023 · Biological systems use a variety of feedback and feedforward mechanisms to establish and maintain specific cellular programs. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Define RNA editing, Name 3 types of RNA editing, the major enzymes involved in each and how each substrate is recognized. Foster collaborations & advance drug development in RNA editing. , 2024). , published in Molecular Therapy Nucleic Acids, 2 presents an innovative approach to improving RNA editing efficiency and specificity using engineered ADAR systems. In addition, RNA-targeting drugs have been developed for diseases with significant unmet medical needs through selective mRNA knockdown or modulation of pre-mRNA splicing. It means that RNA editing, once considered a niche area of molecular biology, is not only active in the human brain but directly involved in the pathology of Parkinson’s disease. 16, 17 One study on the linkage between SLE and RNA editing even suggested RNA editing as a mechanism for autoantigen formation in autoimmune diseases. It discusses 5' capping and polyadenylation of pre-mRNA, as well as splicing of introns and exons. The codon and ensuing amino acid changes are Nov 30, 2013 · For more information, log on to- http://shomusbiology. The conference program includes an array of speakers and discussion leaders from Jul 22, 2024 · RNA molecules and their modifications play crucial roles in the passing of information contained in each gene to the rest of the cell, a process called gene expression. This can occur in different ways, but the outcome is that the In this review, we overview the biological significance of RNA editing including RNA editing in tumorigenesis, RNA editing in neuronal tissues, RNA editing as a regulator of gene expression, and RNA editing in dsRNA-mediated gene silencing, which may increase our understanding of RNA biology. Various factors have been demonstrated to be involved in RNA editing. Dec 1, 2022 · The term “RNA editing” was first coined in 1986 to describe the addition of four nucleotide bases, not present in the genomic DNA, in the RNA sequence of the Trypanosoma mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase (cox) subunit II gene. It is distinct from RNA splicing, which removes introns, in that RNA editing changes the nucleotide composition without excising large sequences. Furthermore, continuous probing for novel RNA editing sites throughout the transcriptome is an intrinsic property of the editing machinery and represents the molecular basis for increased adaptability. Processing of tRNA. 3 days ago · Wave Life Sciences Ltd. Furthermore, the study demonstrated the involvement of DDX6 and ADARs in retinoic acid (RA)-induced neuronal differentiation of human SH-SY5Y cells. In 2020, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna for their 2012 demonstration that the bacterial clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas defense system could be turned into a genome-editing tool based on RNA RNA binding proteins (RBPs) regulate nearly all post-transcriptional processes within cells. The RNA Editing GRC is a premier, international scientific conference focused on advancing the frontiers of science through the presentation of cutting-edge and unpublished research, prioritizing time for discussion after each talk and fostering informal interactions among scientists of all career stages. Some transcripts can undergo alternative splicing. Mice lacking RNA The following points highlight the four main processes to produce mRNA from RNA. add RNA editing to an S-nitrosylation-induced feedforward process, which, together with another recently reported paradigm of RNA editing-mediated feedback control, implicates a new role of RNA editing in fine RNA editing or “epitranscriptomic modification” refers to processing of RNA that occurs after transcription to alter the sequence or structure of the nucleic acid. A protein’s activity may be Sep 22, 2022 · RNA modifications have become hot topics recently. More than 170 RNA modifications have been observed in coding and noncoding RNAs in organisms from every kingdom of life (Cappannini et al. However, only a few of these modifications can lead to base pair changes, which are called RNA editing. Discover how this post-transcriptional mechanism increases RNA diversity. Splicing involves two transesterification reactions catalyzed by a spliceosome complex containing U1, U2, U4, U5 and U6 small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs). add RNA editing to an S-nitrosylation-induced feedforward process, which, together with another recently reported paradigm of RNA editing Advances in synthetic biology, next-generation sequencing, and bioinformatics, with a deeper understanding of mechanisms controlling RNA splicing, have triggered a re-emergence of trans -splicing and the development of new RNA exon editing molecules for treating human disease, including the first application in a clinical trial (this study was Oct 28, 2024 · Additionally, we demonstrate a new application for the dCasRx splice-editing system to identify key regulatory RNA elements of specific splicing events. Splicing: This process takes place in the nucleus and involves the removal of noncoding intron sequences from pre-mRNAs to produce mature mRNAs in which the coding sequences, corresponding to the exons, are continuous. To understand the research progress of plant RNA editing, we comprehensively analyze the articles on plant RNA editing from 2001 to 2022 through bibliometric methods. The Stay tuned to learn the following topics - rna editing,guide rna,rna processing,rna editing mechanism,c to u,rna sequence analysis,rna splicing,molecular biology,rna sequencing,rna modification Apr 8, 2025 · Recent advancements in molecular engineering have established RNA-based technologies as powerful tools for both fundamental research and translational applications. It acts like a switchboard operator gone rogue—misdirecting signals and keeping the immune system in a state of perpetual, damaging alert. Process # 1. (WVE) Spotlight on RNA Editing and RNAi: Pipeline and Clinical Advances in Oligonucleotide Therapeutics October 29, 2025 10:00 AM Post-transcriptional modifications have been recently expanded with the addition of RNA editing, which is predominantly mediated by adenosine and cytidine deaminases acting on DNA and RNA. Adenosine-to-inosine (A-to-I) editing is one of the most widespread and impactful RNA modifications, and is catalyzed by adenosine deaminases acting on RNA (ADARs We will first review the underlying biology of ADAR-mediated RNA editing and how it can inform its therapeutic application. In this study, we developed bacterial deaminase-enabled recoding of RNA (DECOR), which employs an evolved Oct 8, 2024 · Precise calling of promiscuous adenosine-to-inosine RNA editing sites from transcriptomic datasets is hindered by DNA mutations and sequencing/mapping errors. Editing is RNA editing (also RNA modification) is a molecular process through which some cells can make discrete changes to specific nucleotide sequences within an RNA molecule after it has been generated by RNA polymerase. Access 20 million homework answers, class notes, and study guides in our Notebank. We describe the underlying RNA base editing technology, recent applications, and therapeutic implications. After transcription, RNA is also extensively modified by a number of enzymes to further alter this information. A new study from University of California San Diego and Yale Jul 5, 2024 · Programmed RNA editing presents an attractive therapeutic strategy for genetic disease. After reading this article you will learn about: 1. , Describe some potential consequences of RNA editing. Using RNA-sequencing and global protein-RNA binding data, we identify a number of RBPs as key regulators of A-to-I Mar 27, 2024 · As a crucial component of epigenetics at post-transcription level, RNA modification significantly determines RNA fates, further affecting various biological processes and cellular phenotypes. We also explain the biological role of RNA editing, particularly in innate immunity, cancer biogenesis, and antiviral activity. Some mRNAs are targeted by small regulatory RNAs, including miRNAs, which can cause mRNA degradation or block translation. In this review, we will briefly introduce the basic concepts of the RNA editing field of research. A study examining human and primate ADAR sequences found evidence of purifying selection for all 3 ADAR proteins in both humans and primates, with ADAR1 being less evolutionarily constrained than ADAR2 and ADAR3 [27 . In prokaryotes 5'-end of prokaryotic mRNA Read this article to learn about the synthesis process and types of RNA. In a study published June 26 in Nature Communications, the team reported finding major differences between postmortem and living prefrontal cortex brain tissues as they RNA editing is defined as a post-transcriptional process that introduces nucleotide changes into an RNA sequence, contributing to proteomic sequence variation and potentially generating novel neoantigens. But in a potential landmark for the field, Wave Life Sciences announced last week in a press release that its RNA-editing approach had boosted production of a normal protein in people with a life-threatening genetic disease that harms their liver and lungs. weebly. Recently, RNA editing, particularly antisense RNA Jul 1, 2025 · A comparative mitogenomic study reconstructs the ancestral RNA editing site content across angiosperms and suggests that the post transcriptional processing-derived stop codon-lacking transcripts Jun 12, 2023 · In a recent study published in Cell Research, Lin et al. Jun 27, 2024 · Researchers from the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai have shed valuable light on the nuanced functions and intricate regulatory methods of RNA editing, a critical mechanism underlying brain development and disease. Jun 30, 2024 · Study reveals significant differences in RNA editing between postmortem and living human brain Date: June 30, 2024 Source: The Mount Sinai Hospital / Mount Sinai School of Medicine Summary Feb 16, 2024 · Abstract Adenosine-to-Inosine (A-to-I) RNA editing, catalyzed by ADAR enzymes, is prevalent in metazoans. add RNA editing to an S-nitrosylation-induced feedforward process, which, together with another recently reported paradigm of RNA editing-mediated feedback control, implicates a new role of RNA editing in fine Gene expression can be regulated at various stages after an RNA transcript has been produced. We review the emerging field of therapeutic RNA editing, highlight recent laboratory advancements, and discuss the key challenges on the path to clinical development. Capping 3. RNA Editing Occasionally researches encounter a gene with a sequence of nucleotides that does not match exactly that in its RNA product: messenger RNA (mRNA) or ribosomal RNA (rRNA) or transfer RNA (tRNA) and even microRNA (miRNA) If the product is mRNA, some of the codons in the open reading frame (ORF) of the gene specify different amino acids from those in the protein translated from the Sep 18, 2025 · Adenosine-to-inosine RNA editing is a widespread RNA modification that recodes genetic information and expands proteomic diversity. RNA modifications have broad impacts on gene expression and regulate processes Oct 24, 2024 · So far, no RNA editing therapy has emerged for Rett syndrome. RNA editing is a ubiquitous modification in mammalian transcriptomes and is an important co/posttranscriptional modification that plays a crucial role This document summarizes various processes involved in RNA processing in eukaryotes. We will particularly focus our discussion on the therapeutic exploitation of RNA editing as a novel therapeutic tool as well as the future perspectives for its use in cardiovascular disease treatment. Main text Although still in its early days, this decade is shaping up to be a golden age for genome editing. 1,2 This technology has concomitantly driven the meteoric rise of the study of epigenetic and RNA editing, including m6A RNA methylation, m6A epitranscriptomics, and RNA-based editing methods. Jul 31, 2023 · For instance, APOBEC-mediated editing has been correlated with epilepsy and sCJD in mouse models. A: Single site C-to-U editing of apoB mRNA results in the expression of two proteins from one gene, apoB100 and apoB48. We applied our structural insights to engineer a compact and efficient dPspCas13b–ADAR2 complex (REPAIR-mini). Join 60+ experts to discuss innovative editing technologies, translational biology, and clinical data. These research studies are complemented by review articles that summarize our current understanding of RNA modifications in human disease and development. Alternative splicing and RNA editing are also Feb 5, 2025 · Over the past two decades, the field of gene and cell therapy has been revolutionized by the advent of CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing. Nov 15, 2023 · In this post, AI is used to give a general knowledge about RNA editing, a post-transcriptional process that alters the nucleotide sequence of RNA molecules. RNA Splicing and Mechanisms of Splicing and 3. In a recent study published inCell Research, Lin et al. RNA Editing. Processing of Eukaryotic mRNA 2. Factors that affect endogenous RNA editing Since the discovery of ADAR in 1987, 3,4 much progress has been made in understanding the natural biological functions of this enzyme group. It primarily involves the conversion of adenosine (A) to inosine (I) and cytidine (C) to uridine (U), which This article provides a close view on the RNA interference. Jun 22, 2023 · Seo and Kleiner developed a small-molecule-dependent RNA editing platform termed TRIBE-ID to profile RNA–protein interactions in cells with temporal control and to study substrates of the stress This can lead to misunderstandings about RNA editing in the brain if we only study postmortem tissues," said Miguel Rodríguez de los Santos, Ph. When RNA editing takes place in the coding sequence (CDS) region of an mRNA, where an I is recognized as a G or a C as a U after deamination, it can lead to amino acid substitutions (called ‘recoding’) and enhance the diversity of the proteome. To fully understand RBP function, it is essential to identify their in vivo targets. This review highlights the current understanding of RNA modification, methods used to study RNA modification, types of RNA modification, and molecular mechanisms underlying RNA modification. Abstract RNA editing can be broadly defined as any site-specific alteration in an RNA sequence that could have been copied from the template, excluding changes due to processes such as RNA splicing and polyadenylation. show that small nuclear RNAs can improve the cellular safety and efficacy of endogenous protein-mediated RNA base editing, enhancing nuclear RNA editing and the rescue of premature Mar 16, 2024 · We discuss the structural characteristics of three RNA editing enzyme families and their catalytic mechanisms in RNA editing. Nov 21, 2023 · A definition of RNA editing is that it is a process in which a specific nucleotide is changed in the nucleotide sequence of RNA. By influencing RNA processes, including generation, transportation, function, and metabolization, they act as critical regulators of cell biology. 18 Therefore, there is a high likelihood that RNA editing affects human health in some or all of Diversity through RNA editing. Previous research, including the speaker and his research team's, has revealed that the primary function of RNA editing by ADAR1 is to ensure sufficient editing of cellular double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), thereby preventing erroneous cytosolic MDA5-mediated dsRNA sensing. The conversion of C-to-U in mitochondria and plastids is the main kind of RNA editing in plants. Oct 22, 2024 · Manipulating RNA species in mammalian cells has emerged as an important strategy for precise gene expression control. Aug 21, 2025 · Yale researchers have developed a new - and safe - family of RNA-editing tools that utilize an RNA-targeting activity that they found "hidden" inside a popular gene editing tool known as CRISPR-Cas9. Nov 22, 2022 · In this study, the high-throughput RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) of 12-day-old and 20-day-old Arabidopsis seedlings was performed, which enabled transcriptome-wide identification of RNA editing sites Jun 26, 2023 · The study revealed that two RNA-editing enzymes, namely adenosine deaminases acting on RNA (ADAR), are associated with DDX6. In this review, Xu et al. Prokaryotic mRNA is generally not processed. Almost all types of RNA molecules undergo post synthesis transformation which is called RNA processing. We propose that higher organisms have therefore evolved to systems with increasing RNA editing activity and, as a result, to more complex systems. Besides this three types of RNA, new types of RNA molecules are discovered which are involved in various activities directly or modulate the activity. Apr 11, 2025 · These structures provide mechanistic insights into RNA cleavage and editing. Sep 1, 2024 · Gene and RNA editing methods, technologies, and applications are emerging as innovative forms of therapy and medicine, offering more efficient implementation compared to traditional pharmaceutical treatments. Here, we present a stepwise computational framework, called DEMINING, to distinguish RNA editing and DNA mutations directly from RNA sequencing datasets, with an embedded deep learning model named DeepDDR. Large and small drugmakers say such results are just the start. An exogenous dsRNA or endogenous pre-miRNA can be processed by dicer and incorporated into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), which targets single-stranded messenger RNA mol­ecules and triggers translational repression Recent advancements in molecular engineering have established RNA-based technologies as powerful tools for both fundamental research and translational applications. It details two mechanisms: Substitution Editing (changing nucleotides) and … An important impact of RNA editing is its ability to challenge the central dogma of biology. Apr 13, 2025 · RNA editing involves the insertion, deletion, or chemical modification of nucleotides in mRNA. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like What is RNA editing? When and where does it occur?, What is the outcome of RNA editing?, What are the two mechanisms for RNA editing? and more. In this article, we highlight RNA editing as a fascinating bridge between molecular biology and evolutionary theory—two domains Introduction RNA editing is a process of RNA modification in which discrete changes are made in the specific nucleotide sequences within an RNA molecule after transcription without splicing. Among the various RNA-based technologies developed, RNA base editing has recently Jun 10, 2025 · A recent study by Ai et al. Jun 9, 2025 · Explore the world of RNA editing, its mechanisms, and its significance in RNA biology and disease treatment. Feb 4, 2025 · As they study the emerging roles of RNA in disease and homeostasis, some scientists use RNA editing to direct precise RNA changes that shape cellular events. Nucleic Acids Research, Plant Journal and Plant cell are the journals that deserve Jan 27, 2018 · Results Nonsynonymous Editing Is Less Frequent than Synonymous Editing We respectively compiled human C-to-U coding RNA editing data from macrophages during the M1 activation phase, monocytes under hypoxia, and HEK293T cells under APOBEC3A overexpression (table 1). This regulated process makes different mRNAs and proteins from the same initial RNA transcript. RNA Editing is a dynamic process that can be regulated by various factors, such as RNA-binding proteins, microRNAs, and non-coding RNAs. Mar 16, 2024 · Abstract With the advancement of sequencing technologies and bioinformatics, over than 170 different RNA modifications have been identified. These edits extensively modify the reading frame of the target mRNAs, and sometimes editing can result in two entirely different protein products [2]. Dec 27, 2024 · RNA modifications are widespread throughout the mammalian transcriptome and play pivotal roles in regulating various cellular processes. highlight how RNA editing enzymes are being used to identify RNA binding protein targets with high sensitivity and specificity and the implications of these technological advances for RNA editing-based therapeutics. Splicing 2. Standard techniques for profiling RBP targets, such as crosslinking To summarize, our unique topic covers RNA modifications such as m6A and m5C in disease, the role of RNA binding proteins and non-coding RNAs, and the editing progress of RNA editing in plants. Oct 14, 2025 · RNA is generally single-stranded, as DNA is transcribed by RNA polymerases into mRNA (messenger RNA), which is read by ribosomes to generate protein (translation). Here we review recent advances in precision transcriptome editing with a focus on tools that engineer specific transcripts for abundance, translation, base editing, alternative isoforms, and chemical modifications. Take a quick interactive quiz on the concepts in RNA Modification | Definition & Mechanism or print the worksheet to practice offline. This page discusses RNA editing, which creates differences between gene sequences and RNA, influencing protein synthesis. Their work introduces the Strand Displacement Responsive ADAR System for RNA Editing (SPRING), which employs a "blocking sequence" to form a hairpin guide RNA, enhancing both the efficiency and A further study identified RNA editing sites from RNA-seq alone by taking advantage of the fact that the same editing sites are more likely to be present in different individuals than in rare single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) [93]. Jan 20, 2022 · TRIBE (targets of RNA binding proteins identified by editing), RNA tagging, and STAMP (surveying targets by APOBEC-mediated profiling) are new genetic tools useful for the study of post-transcriptional regulation and RBP identification. and more. Here, we study the roles of >200 RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) in mediating RNA editing in two human cell lines. B: The kainate receptor subunit GluR-6 pre-mRNA undergoes RNA editing at three major positions, two located in membrane region M1 and one in M2. These chemical alterations can be found on either the ribose sugar or the nucleobase, Nov 28, 2017 · Although most studies examining RNA editing evolution and adaptation have focused on editing sites, it is worth discussing evolutionary analyses of the ADAR proteins themselves. Get help with homework questions from verified tutors 24/7 on demand. The three classical types of RNA are: (1) Messenger RNA (2) Ribosomal RNA and (3) Transfer RNA. Current trends emphasize the urgent need for advanced methods and technologies to detect public health threats, including diseases and viral agents. Jul 11, 2006 · In this study, we provide a detailed analysis of data on C-to-U editing sites in land plant chloroplasts and propose a model for the evolution of RNA editing in land plants. Introduction: Cells use dicer to trim double stranded RNA to form small interfering RNA or microRNA. RNA editing refers to changing the sequence of RNA after transcription, either by adding nucleotides, taking them away, or substituting one for another. RNA editing can take place in various RNA types, including messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA), and plays a key role in fine-tuning gene expression. Changes in gene expression attributed to editing have been described in organisms from unicellular protozoa to man, and can affect the mRNAs, tRNAs, and rRNAs present in all Oct 22, 2024 · RNA editing: emerging from CRISPR’s shadow Early study data from Wave Life Sciences suggests how editing RNA may yield viable medicines. May 4, 2025 · This revelation is crucial. Jun 7, 2023 · RNA therapeutics have had a tremendous impact on medicine, recently exemplified by the rapid development and deployment of mRNA vaccines to combat the COVID-19 pandemic. xv57 njc qm lmo qszyq x5gm qmrxgc bgb sonls ck